Unit 1: Plant Taxonomy and Biosystematics
1. Plant Nomenclature
- Scientific naming: Binomial nomenclature
- International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN)
- Principles and rules of botanical nomenclature
2. Purpose and Principles of Classification
- Objectives of plant classification
- Natural vs. artificial vs. phylogenetic systems
- Taxonomic hierarchy: Kingdom to species
3. Systems of Plant Classification
- Artificial systems (e.g., Linnaeus)
- Natural systems (e.g., Bentham and Hooker)
- Phylogenetic systems (e.g., Engler and Prantl)
- Modern molecular and cladistic approaches
4. Taxonomy of Higher Plants
- Angiosperms: Families, genera, species
- Gymnosperms and ferns: Taxonomic considerations
- Morphological vs. molecular traits in classification
5. Taxonomic Literature and Resources
- Floras and manuals: Definitions and examples
- Monographs and revisions
- Indices, catalogues, and dictionaries: Importance in taxonomy
- Role of herbaria in taxonomic research
Biosystematics
6. Concepts of Biosystematics
- Definition and scope
- Taxonomy vs. biosystematics: Key differences
- Role of biosystematics in plant breeding and conservation
7. Evolution and Species Differentiation
- Microevolution and macroevolution
- Processes of speciation: Allopatric, sympatric, parapatric
- Genetic differentiation and reproductive isolation
8. Biosystematics and Taxonomic Tools
- Cytotaxonomy (chromosomal analysis)
- Chemotaxonomy (biochemical markers)
- Numerical taxonomy (phenetics)
- Molecular taxonomy (DNA markers, phylogenomics)
9. Case Studies: Origin, Evolution, and Biosystematics of Crops
- Rice (Oryza spp.): Domestication, wild relatives, genetic diversity
- Wheat (Triticum spp.): Polyploidy and evolutionary history
- Rapeseed and Mustard (Brassica spp.): Triangle of U concept
- Cotton (Gossypium spp.): Diploid and tetraploid species, global distribution
10. Modern Developments in Plant Taxonomy
- Molecular systematics and phylogenomics
- Global taxonomic initiatives (e.g., Catalogue of Life, World Flora Online)
- DNA barcoding for rapid species identification
- Online databases (e.g., IPNI, Tropicos, GBIF)
🌾 Cereals
1. Wheat (Triticum spp.)
- Origin and History: Fertile Crescent, polyploidy evolution
- Domestication: Selection of free-threshing types
- Botany: Morphology, growth stages, C3 photosynthesis
- Genetic Resources: Gene pools, landraces, CIMMYT contributions
- Cultivation: Agro-climatic requirements, planting, irrigation, fertilization
- Production: Major global producers, yield trends
- Uses: Food (bread, pasta), feed, industrial use (ethanol, starch)
2. Rice (Oryza spp.)
- Origin and History: Asia, domestication of O. sativa and O. glaberrima
- Botany: Growth habit, tillering, C3 photosynthesis
- Genetic Resources: Wild relatives, IRRI contributions
- Cultivation: Lowland, upland, rainfed, and irrigated systems
- Production: Asia as the major producer, yield statistics
- Uses: Staple food, fermented products, by-products
3. Maize (Zea mays)
- Origin and History: Central America, teosinte ancestor
- Domestication: Selection for cob size and non-shattering grains
- Botany: Monocot morphology, C4 photosynthesis
- Genetic Resources: Landraces, hybrid development
- Cultivation: Planting methods, soil and climate requirements
- Production: Major producers (USA, China, Brazil)
- Uses: Food, feed, industrial (starch, biofuel)
4. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)
- Origin and History: Africa, drought adaptation
- Botany: Panicle inflorescence, C4 metabolism
- Genetic Resources: Resistance to pests, drought, and striga
- Cultivation: Rainfed systems, arid climates
- Production: India, Nigeria, USA
- Uses: Food (porridge), fodder, biofuel, industrial starch
5. Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum)
- Origin and History: Sahel region of Africa
- Botany: Tillering, spike-like panicle, C4 photosynthesis
- Genetic Resources: Drought and heat-tolerant genotypes
- Cultivation: Sandy soils, rainfed systems
- Production: India, Africa
- Uses: Human food, livestock feed, beer brewing
6. Minor Millets (Finger millet, Proso millet, Kodo millet, Foxtail millet, Barnyard millet, Little millet)
- Botany: Small-seeded, diverse inflorescence
- Genetic Resources: Stress tolerance, nutritional superiority
- Uses: Nutraceutical food, climate-resilient crop
🌱 Pulses
(For all pulses below — Origin, Domestication, Botany, Genetic Resources, Cultivation, Production, Uses)
- Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)
- Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)
- Black gram (Vigna mungo)
- Green gram (Vigna radiata)
- Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)
- Soybean (Glycine max)
- Pea (Pisum sativum)
- Lentil (Lens culinaris)
- Horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum)
- Lab-lab bean (Lablab purpureus)
- Ricebean (Vigna umbellata)
- Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus)
- French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
- Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus)
- Sword bean (Canavalia gladiata)
🌻 Oilseeds
(For all oilseeds below — Origin, Domestication, Botany, Genetic Resources, Cultivation, Production, Uses)
- Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)
- Sesame (Sesamum indicum)
- Castor (Ricinus communis)
- Rapeseed & Mustard (Brassica spp.)
- Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)
- Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius)
- Niger (Guizotia abyssinica)
- Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)
- Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
- Linseed (Linum usitatissimum)
🌿 Structure, Development, and Chemical Constituents of Plant Parts
- Roots: Structure (tap, fibrous), absorption, storage organs
- Stems: Primary vs. secondary growth, storage, modified stems
- Leaves: Photosynthetic adaptations, C3, C4, CAM pathways
- Flowers: Reproductive organs, pollination mechanisms
- Fruits and Seeds: Classification, dispersal, dormancy, germination
- Chemical Constituents:
- Carbohydrates (starch, sugars)
- Proteins (globulins, albumins)
- Lipids (saturated, unsaturated oils)
- Secondary metabolites (alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes)
🌾 Revival of Underutilized Crops and Economic Benefits
- Underutilized Crops: Buckwheat, quinoa, amaranth, chia, millets, winged bean, moringa
- Importance:
- Nutritional value (high protein, micronutrients)
- Climate resilience (drought, saline tolerance)
- Low input requirement (sustainable farming)
- Economic diversification (new markets, niche products)
Fibres
1. Cotton (Gossypium spp.)
- Origin: India, Africa, Central America
- Distribution: Tropical and subtropical regions worldwide
- Cultivation: Climate, soil, irrigation, varieties
- Production: Major producers — China, India, USA
- Utilization: Textiles, seed oil, animal feed, industrial by-products
2. Silk Cotton (Ceiba pentandra)
- Origin: Tropical America
- Distribution: Asia, Africa, Latin America
- Cultivation: Warm, humid climates
- Production: Limited, mainly tropical regions
- Utilization: Pillow stuffing, insulation, life-saving devices (buoyancy)
3. Jute (Corchorus spp.)
- Origin: India and Bangladesh
- Distribution: South and Southeast Asia
- Cultivation: Warm, humid, alluvial soils
- Production: India, Bangladesh
- Utilization: Sacks, ropes, eco-friendly packaging, textiles
4. Sunn Hemp (Crotalaria juncea)
- Origin: India
- Distribution: Asia, tropical and subtropical regions
- Cultivation: Light, well-drained soils
- Production: Mainly India
- Utilization: Fiber, green manure, forage crop
5. Agave (Agave sisalana)
- Origin: Central America
- Distribution: Africa, Brazil, Mexico
- Cultivation: Arid, semi-arid regions
- Production: Mexico, Brazil, Kenya
- Utilization: Rope, mats, paper, biofuel
6. Flax (Linum usitatissimum)
- Origin: Fertile Crescent
- Distribution: Europe, Canada, China, Russia
- Cultivation: Cool climates, loamy soils
- Production: Canada, Russia, China
- Utilization: Linen fabric, linseed oil, food, pharmaceuticals
7. Mesta (Hibiscus cannabinus, H. sabdariffa)
- Origin: Africa
- Distribution: India, Southeast Asia
- Cultivation: Warm, tropical climates
- Production: India, Thailand
- Utilization: Rope, sacks, textiles, paper
Sugars
1. Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
- Origin: New Guinea
- Distribution: Tropical and subtropical regions globally
- Cultivation: Warm, humid climates, fertile soils
- Production: Brazil, India, China
- Utilization: Sugar, ethanol, jaggery, by-products (molasses, bagasse)
2. Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris)
- Origin: Mediterranean region
- Distribution: Temperate regions of Europe, USA, Russia
- Cultivation: Cool climates, well-drained soils
- Production: Russia, France, USA
- Utilization: Sugar extraction, animal feed, bioethanol
3. Sugar Palm (Arenga pinnata, Borassus spp.)
- Origin: Southeast Asia
- Distribution: Tropical Asia, Africa
- Cultivation: Tropical lowlands
- Production: Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand
- Utilization: Palm sugar, beverages, fiber, construction material
4. Sweet Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)
- Origin: Africa
- Distribution: Africa, India, USA
- Cultivation: Semi-arid regions
- Production: India, China, USA
- Utilization: Sugar syrup, bioethanol, fodder
Fodder and Green Manure Crops
- Lucerne (Medicago sativa)
- Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum)
- Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)
- Maize (Zea mays)
- Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)
- Sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea)
- Dhaincha (Sesbania spp.)
Key aspects:
- Origin, distribution, cultivation — suited to tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates
- Production — high-yielding varieties
- Utilization — livestock feed, green manure for soil fertility enhancement
Plantation Crops
1. Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
- Origin: Indo-Pacific region
- Distribution: Tropics worldwide
- Cultivation: Coastal, humid tropics
- Production: Indonesia, Philippines, India
- Utilization: Copra, oil, fiber, food, coir, beverages
2. Cocoa (Theobroma cacao)
- Origin: South America
- Distribution: Tropical Africa, Asia, South America
- Cultivation: Humid tropics
- Production: Ivory Coast, Ghana, Indonesia
- Utilization: Chocolate, cocoa butter, confectionery, cosmetics
3. Tea (Camellia sinensis)
- Origin: China
- Distribution: Asia, Africa, South America
- Cultivation: Cool, humid, acidic soils
- Production: China, India, Kenya
- Utilization: Beverage, extracts, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
Root and Tuber Crops
1. Potato (Solanum tuberosum)
- Origin: South America
- Distribution: Worldwide in temperate and subtropical regions
- Cultivation: Cool climates, fertile loamy soils
- Production: China, India, Russia
- Utilization: Food, starch, processed products
2. Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas)
- Origin: Central America
- Distribution: Tropics and subtropics globally
- Cultivation: Warm, sandy loam soils
- Production: China, Uganda, Indonesia
- Utilization: Food, livestock feed, industrial starch
3. Tapioca/Cassava (Manihot esculenta)
- Origin: South America
- Distribution: Africa, Asia, Latin America
- Cultivation: Tropical, poor soils
- Production: Nigeria, Thailand, Brazil
- Utilization: Starch, food, ethanol, animal feed
4. Aroids (Colocasia, Alocasia, Xanthosoma spp.)
- Origin: Asia, South America
- Distribution: Tropical Asia, Africa
- Cultivation: Humid, lowland areas
- Production: India, China, Pacific islands
- Utilization: Tuber food, ornamental use
🍎 Fruits
Tropical and Indigenous Fruits
1. Mango (Mangifera indica)
- Origin: India and Southeast Asia
- Distribution: Tropical and subtropical regions
- Classification: Drupe
- Production: India, China, Thailand
- Utilization: Fresh consumption, juices, pickles, pulp, medicinal uses
2. Banana (Musa spp.)
- Origin: Southeast Asia
- Distribution: Tropics globally
- Classification: Berry
- Production: India, China, Indonesia
- Utilization: Fresh, chips, flour, fiber (pseudo-stem), leaves for wrapping
3. Citrus (Citrus spp.) — Orange, lemon, lime, grapefruit, etc.
- Origin: Southeast Asia
- Distribution: Tropics and subtropics
- Classification: Hesperidium
- Production: China, Brazil, India
- Utilization: Fresh fruit, juices, essential oils, vitamin C source
4. Guava (Psidium guajava)
- Origin: Central America
- Distribution: Tropics and subtropics
- Classification: Berry
- Production: India, Brazil, Mexico
- Utilization: Fresh fruit, beverages, jams, medicinal value
5. Grapes (Vitis vinifera)
- Origin: Western Asia
- Distribution: Worldwide (temperate and subtropical regions)
- Classification: Berry
- Production: Italy, China, USA
- Utilization: Fresh, raisins, wine, juice
Other Indigenous Fruits: Jackfruit, Custard apple, Sapota, Amla, Ber, Jamun, Pomegranate, Bael
Temperate Fruits
1. Apple (Malus domestica)
- Origin: Central Asia
- Distribution: Temperate regions
- Classification: Pome
- Production: China, USA, Poland, India
- Utilization: Fresh, cider, vinegar, processed products
2. Plum (Prunus domestica)
- Origin: Europe and Asia
- Distribution: Temperate regions
- Classification: Drupe
- Production: China, Serbia, Romania
- Utilization: Fresh, dried prunes, jams
3. Pear (Pyrus spp.)
- Origin: Europe and Asia
- Distribution: Temperate regions
- Classification: Pome
- Production: China, Italy, USA
- Utilization: Fresh, canned, juices
4. Peach (Prunus persica)
- Origin: China
- Distribution: Temperate and subtropical regions
- Classification: Drupe
- Production: China, Italy, Spain
- Utilization: Fresh, canned, juices
5. Cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale)
- Origin: Brazil
- Distribution: Tropical regions
- Classification: Nut (false fruit)
- Production: India, Vietnam, Ivory Coast
- Utilization: Edible nut, cashew apple for juice, oil extraction
6. Walnut (Juglans regia)
- Origin: Central Asia
- Distribution: Temperate regions
- Classification: Nut
- Production: China, USA, Iran
- Utilization: Edible seed, oil, timber
🍅 Vegetables
- Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)
- Brinjal (Solanum melongena)
- Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
- Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
- Cole crops: Cabbage, Cauliflower, Broccoli
- Gourds: Bitter gourd, Bottle gourd, Ridge gourd, Pumpkin
Key aspects: Origin, climate requirements, major producers, economic importance (fresh, processed, seeds, medicinal uses).
🌿 Fumigatories and Masticatories
- Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
- Betelvine (Piper betle)
- Arecanut (Areca catechu)
Focus: Origin, distribution, cultivation, economic uses (chewing, nicotine production, religious use).
🌱 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
- Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina) – Reserpine for hypertension
- Belladonna (Atropa belladonna) – Alkaloids (atropine)
- Cinchona (Cinchona spp.) – Quinine (malaria)
- Nux-vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica) – Strychnine, medicinal poison
- Vinca (Catharanthus roseus) – Vincristine, vinblastine (anti-cancer)
- Mentha (Mentha spp.) – Essential oils, menthol
- Glycyrrhiza (Glycyrrhiza glabra) – Licorice root (flavor, medicine)
- Plantago (Plantago ovata) – Psyllium husk (digestive aid)
🌺 Narcotics
- Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) – THC, fiber
- Datura (Datura stramonium) – Tropane alkaloids (hallucinogen, medicine)
- Gloriosa (Gloriosa superba) – Colchicine (anti-gout)
- Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium) – Natural insecticide
- Opium (Papaver somniferum) – Morphine, codeine (painkillers)
🌳 Dye-, Tannin-, Gum- and Resin-yielding Plants
- Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria) – Blue dye
- Catechu (Acacia catechu) – Tannin
- Gum Arabic (Acacia senegal) – Edible gum
- Resins: Pine, Sal tree
🌲 Plants of Agroforestry Importance
- Subabool (Leucaena leucocephala)
- Acacia (Acacia nilotica)
- Poplar (Populus spp.)
- Sesbania (Sesbania spp.)
- Neem (Azadirachta indica)
Role: Soil fertility, shade, timber, fodder, nitrogen fixation, pest repellents.
🌵 Non-Traditional Economic Plants
- Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) – Liquid wax (cosmetics, industrial oil)
- Guayule (Parthenium argentatum) – Natural rubber
- Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) – Biodiesel
- Carcus (likely Carthamus tinctorius – safflower) – Oil, dye
🌍 Biodiversity and Plant Genetic Resources (PGR)
1️⃣ Biosphere and Biodiversity
- Biosphere: The global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships.
- Biodiversity: The variability among living organisms, including:
- Genetic diversity: Variation within species
- Species diversity: Number of species in a habitat
- Ecosystem diversity: Variety of habitats and ecological processes
- Importance: Essential for ecosystem stability, agriculture, medicine, and climate regulation.
2️⃣ Plant Species Richness and Endemism
- Species Richness: The number of plant species in a given area.
- Endemism: Species that are native to a specific geographic location and not found elsewhere.
- Biodiversity Hotspots: Regions with high species richness and endemism, e.g., Western Ghats, Himalayas.
3️⃣ Concept and Importance of Plant Genetic Resources (PGR)
- PGR: Genetic material of plant species valuable for breeding, conservation, and research.
- Significance:
- Food security – Provides raw material for crop improvement.
- Climate adaptation – Drought, salinity, and disease resistance traits.
- Economic importance – Source of industrial, medicinal, and bioenergy plants.
- Erosion risk – Habitat loss, monoculture, climate change.
4️⃣ Centres of Origin and Diversity of Crop Plants
- Nikolai Vavilov’s Centers of Diversity:
- Primary Centres: Where a crop originated (e.g., Wheat – Near East).
- Secondary Centres: Regions where a crop later diversified.
- Examples of Crop Origin and Diversity:
- Rice (Oryza sativa) – China, India
- Maize (Zea mays) – Mexico
- Wheat (Triticum spp.) – Fertile Crescent
- Potato (Solanum tuberosum) – South America
5️⃣ Domestication, Evaluation, and Bioprospecting
- Domestication: Process of adapting wild plants for human use.
- Evaluation: Characterization of PGR for desirable traits.
- Bioprospecting: Exploration of biodiversity for commercial and scientific benefits (e.g., medicinal plants, biofuels).
6️⃣ National and International Organizations Associated with PGR
National Organizations (India):
- National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) – Collects, conserves, and characterizes PGR.
- Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Authority (PPV&FRA) – Implements plant variety protection laws.
- National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) – Regulates biodiversity access and benefit-sharing.
International Organizations:
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) – Global efforts in PGR conservation.
- Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) – Promotes sustainable agriculture.
- International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) – Facilitates global PGR exchange.
7️⃣ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Related Issues
CBD (1992, Rio de Janeiro):
- Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
- Equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources.
Issues in PGR Access and Ownership:
- Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): Legal rights over genetic material.
- Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBRs): Protection for new plant varieties.
- Farmers’ Rights: Recognition of traditional knowledge in breeding.
- Sui Generis System: Country-specific laws to protect plant varieties.
8️⃣ Agrobiodiversity and Habitat Fragmentation
- Agrobiodiversity: The variety of genetic resources used in agriculture.
- Threats:
- Habitat destruction and fragmentation.
- Climate change, genetic erosion, industrial farming.
- Overdependence on a few crop species.
9️⃣ Ecology, Conservation Genetics, and Reproductive Fitness
Ecology Concepts:
- Ecosystem services, plant-animal interactions.
- Role of biodiversity in agriculture.
Conservation Genetics:
- Study of genetic variation for species conservation.
- In situ conservation: On-farm, natural habitat preservation.
- Ex situ conservation: Gene banks, seed vaults, botanical gardens.
Reproductive Fitness:
- Ability of plant populations to survive and reproduce in changing environments.
🔟 Legal Frameworks and Agreements
- Global Plan of Action for PGR: FAO strategy for genetic conservation.
- National Biodiversity Authority (NBA): Regulates access to Indian biodiversity.
- FAO Agreement on Agriculture: Governs global agricultural policies.
- Delhi Declaration: India’s commitment to biodiversity conservation.
- UPOV (International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants): Protects plant breeders' rights.
- PPV&FRA (Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, India, 2001): Balances breeder rights and farmers’ rights.
- Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement: Ensures food safety and pest control in global trade.
🌱 Germplasm Augmentation
1️⃣ History and Importance of Germplasm Collection
History:
- Early civilizations saved seeds for the next season (e.g., Mesopotamia, Egypt).
- Systematic collections began in the 20th century (e.g., Vavilov’s expeditions).
- Establishment of global gene banks (e.g., Svalbard Seed Vault, NBPGR).
Importance:
- Food security: Ensures availability of diverse crop traits.
- Climate resilience: Provides traits for drought, salinity, pests, and diseases.
- Breeding programs: Source of novel genes for yield, quality, and adaptability.
- Conservation: Preserves endangered and rare species.
2️⃣ Eco-Geographical Distribution of Diversity
- Eco-geographical Regions:
- Areas with distinct climate, soil, and vegetation types influencing plant diversity.
- Centres of Origin: Vavilov’s regions where crops were first domesticated (e.g., Near East, Mesoamerica, South Asia).
- Agro-ecological zones: Modern classification based on temperature, rainfall, and altitude.
3️⃣ Logistics of Exploration and Collection
- Steps in Germplasm Collection:
- Pre-exploration planning: Target species, regions, seasons.
- Field exploration: On-site collection of seeds, cuttings, or whole plants.
- Recording data: Habitat, latitude, longitude, altitude, associated species.
- Handling and transport: Safe packaging, preservation methods.
- Storage: Immediate transfer to gene banks for processing.
4️⃣ Use of Floras and Herbaria
- Flora: Complete documentation of plant species in a particular region (e.g., Flora of India).
- Herbaria: Collections of pressed, preserved plants used for identification and comparison (e.g., Central National Herbarium, Kolkata).
- Importance:
- Guides in locating rare and endemic species.
- Helps identify and validate collected samples.
- Acts as a permanent reference for taxonomic studies.
5️⃣ Sampling Strategies
Random Sampling: Each plant has an equal chance of being selected — suitable for homogeneous populations.
Selective Sampling: Targets specific plants based on desirable traits (e.g., drought tolerance).
Gene Pool Sampling:
- Core Collection: Small subset representing maximum genetic diversity.
- Mini-core Collection: Further reduced but still diverse.
- Base Collection: Long-term backup storage.
Self-Pollinated Species:
- Small population size is sufficient due to genetic uniformity (e.g., wheat, rice).
Cross-Pollinated Species:
- Larger, diverse samples needed to capture heterogeneity (e.g., maize, sunflower).
6️⃣ Introduction and Exchange of Plant Germplasm
Concept: Movement of plant genetic material from one region to another for evaluation, breeding, or direct cultivation.
Importance:
- Enhances crop diversity.
- Provides novel genes for resistance and yield improvement.
- Aids in reintroducing lost or extinct local varieties.
Eco-geographical Considerations:
- Climate compatibility
- Photoperiod sensitivity
- Pest and disease prevalence
- Soil type suitability
7️⃣ Prerequisites for PGR Exchange
- Phytosanitary Measures: To prevent pest/disease introduction.
- Quarantine Procedures: Ensure germplasm is disease-free (e.g., NBPGR's Quarantine Laboratory).
- Proper Documentation: Passport data (origin, latitude, altitude, etc.), characterization, and evaluation data.
8️⃣ Conventions and Achievements of PGR Exchange
Notable Conventions:
- International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)
- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
- Nagoya Protocol (2010) – Access and benefit-sharing.
Achievements:
- Green Revolution varieties (e.g., IR8 rice from Philippines, Mexican wheat in India).
- Introduction of high-yielding maize, soybean, and oilseeds.
- Exchange of medicinal and underutilized crops.
9️⃣ Multilateral Agreements and Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs)
- Multilateral Agreements: Ensure global sharing of PGR with fair benefit-sharing mechanisms.
- Material Transfer Agreement (MTA): Legal contract specifying the terms of germplasm transfer, ownership, and usage.
- Standard MTA under ITPGRFA ensures free access to designated crops.
🔟 National and International Legislations
- India:
- PPV&FRA (2001) – Protects plant breeders and farmers' rights.
- NBA (National Biodiversity Authority) – Manages access to biological resources.
- International:
- UPOV (International Union for Protection of New Varieties of Plants)
- WTO-TRIPS Agreement – Enforces intellectual property rights on biological innovations.
1️⃣1️⃣ Geospatial Analysis and Remote Sensing
- Geospatial Analysis: Uses GIS (Geographic Information Systems) to map and analyze biodiversity patterns, germplasm collection zones, and vulnerable areas.
- Remote Sensing: Satellite and drone imaging to identify diverse ecosystems, track deforestation, and monitor crop performance.
1️⃣2️⃣ FAO Code of Conduct
- FAO Code of Conduct for Plant Germplasm Collection and Transfer (1993):
- Ensures environmentally sustainable collection.
- Respects local communities' rights and knowledge.
- Promotes fair and equitable benefit-sharing.
1️⃣3️⃣ Taxonomic Databases and Documentation Systems
Taxonomic Databases:
- GRIN (Germplasm Resources Information Network)
- Plant Genetic Resources Database (PGRDB)
- The Plant List – Comprehensive global plant species database.
Documentation Systems:
- Passport Data: Basic information about collection source.
- Characterization Data: Morphological and agronomic traits.
- Evaluation Data: Stress tolerance, yield, quality.
🌱 Unit 7: Germplasm Conservation
1️⃣ Principles of Germplasm Conservation
- Goal: Preserve the genetic diversity of plant species for current and future use.
- Key Principles:
- Genetic stability: Maintain original genetic makeup.
- Viability: Ensure seeds/plants remain alive and capable of reproduction.
- Representation: Ensure diverse genotypes are conserved.
- Accessibility: Ensure availability for research, breeding, and reintroduction.
2️⃣ Methods of Conservation
A. In Situ Conservation (On-site)
- Conservation of plants in their natural habitats.
- Examples:
- National parks, biosphere reserves, and sacred groves.
- On-farm conservation by traditional farmers (landraces).
- Advantages: Supports evolutionary processes and adaptation.
- Challenges: Habitat destruction, climate change.
B. Ex Situ Conservation (Off-site)
- Conservation away from the natural habitat.
- Types:
- Seed banks – Store seeds at low temperature and moisture.
- Field gene banks – Maintain live plants in fields (e.g., tree species, crops with recalcitrant seeds).
- Clonal repositories – Preserve vegetatively propagated plants (e.g., potato, sugarcane).
- Botanical gardens and arboreta – Preserve rare or endangered species.
- In vitro storage – Tissue culture preservation for rare species.
- Cryo-conservation – Long-term freezing in liquid nitrogen (-196°C).
3️⃣ On-Farm Conservation
- Farmers maintain and cultivate traditional crop varieties (landraces) in their fields.
- Importance:
- Conserves locally adapted genotypes.
- Encourages participatory plant breeding.
- Preserves traditional knowledge.
4️⃣ Gene Banks: Short, Medium, and Long-term Conservation
- Short-term storage:
- Temp: 0 to +5°C, high moisture content seeds (for distribution or research).
- Medium-term storage:
- Temp: -10 to -20°C, preserves viability for 10-15 years.
- Used for active collections (regular breeding programs).
- Long-term storage:
- Temp: -18 to -20°C, moisture 5-7%.
- Maintains seeds for decades or centuries (base collections).
5️⃣ Seed Physiology and Seed Technology in Conservation
- Seed viability: Ability to germinate and grow into healthy plants.
- Seed vigor: Ability to perform well under various conditions.
- Moisture content: Reduced to 4-7% for long-term storage.
- Temperature: Lower temperatures slow metabolic activity and aging.
6️⃣ Seed Storage Behavior
- Orthodox Seeds:
- Can tolerate drying and freezing (e.g., rice, wheat, maize).
- Suitable for long-term storage.
- Recalcitrant Seeds:
- Sensitive to drying and freezing (e.g., coconut, mango, rubber).
- Requires field gene banks or cryopreservation.
7️⃣ Field Gene Banks and Clonal Repositories
- Field Gene Banks:
- Live plants grown in fields for species that can’t be preserved as seeds (e.g., banana, sugarcane).
- Provide materials for breeding and research.
- Clonal Repositories:
- Maintain vegetative material from species propagated asexually.
- Preserve genetic identity.
8️⃣ Gene Bank Management and Standards
Gene Bank Standards for Various Crops:
- Germination standards – Minimum % germination required.
- Moisture content standards – Ensures longevity.
- Temperature control – Based on crop storage behavior.
- Regular viability testing – Periodic monitoring of stored material.
Key Guidelines:
- ISTA (International Seed Testing Association)
- AOSA (Association of Official Seed Analysts)
- IPGRI (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute)
9️⃣ Documentation of Information in Gene Banks
- Passport data: Origin, location, collection details.
- Characterization data: Morphological, agronomic traits.
- Evaluation data: Stress tolerance, yield potential.
- Storage data: Viability, moisture content, germination status.
🔟 Cryo-conservation Strategies
- Cryopreservation: Storage at ultra-low temperatures (-196°C) in liquid nitrogen.
- Suitable for: Recalcitrant seeds, pollen, tissues, meristems, embryos.
- Steps:
- Pre-treatment with cryoprotectants (e.g., glycerol).
- Rapid freezing.
- Long-term monitoring.
- Thawing and viability testing.
- Challenges: High-cost, technical expertise, genetic stability monitoring.
1️⃣1️⃣ Monitoring Genetic Stability
- Goal: Ensure no genetic drift or mutations occur.
- Techniques:
- Morphological observations
- Molecular markers (e.g., SSRs, SNPs)
- Cytogenetic analysis (e.g., chromosome counting)
1️⃣2️⃣ Global and National Gene Bank Status
Global:
- Svalbard Global Seed Vault – Norway.
- CGIAR gene banks – Maintains global crop diversity.
India:
- National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi – Largest repository.
- Regional stations: Focus on specific agro-climatic regions.
1️⃣3️⃣ Strategies to Revive and Rescue Rare Genetic Material
- Rescue collection: Recovering material from endangered or threatened areas.
- Re-introduction programs: Restoring lost landraces to original habitats.
- Community seed banks: Local repositories for farmer access.
1️⃣4️⃣ National Action Plan for Agrobiodiversity
- Aims to conserve, utilize, and promote sustainable use of PGR.
- Encourages community participation, public awareness, and capacity building.
1️⃣5️⃣ Formal and Informal Seed Systems
Formal Seed System:
- Government-regulated.
- Certified, high-quality seeds.
- Institutional production and distribution.
Informal Seed System:
- Farmer-to-farmer seed exchange.
- Local varieties, landraces.
- Preserves traditional knowledge and agrobiodiversity.
🌟 Unit 8: Biotechnology in PGR
1️⃣ Plant Conservation Biotechnology
- Definition: Use of biotechnological tools to conserve and manage plant genetic resources.
- Key Objectives:
- Preserve rare, endangered, or valuable plant species.
- Ensure genetic stability and longevity.
- Facilitate international germplasm exchange.
2️⃣ Biotechnology in Plant Germplasm Acquisition
- Role: Accelerates the collection, characterization, and storage of plant genetic material.
- Techniques:
- DNA fingerprinting – Identifies unique genetic profiles for better diversity analysis.
- Molecular markers – Assists in locating and selecting desired genetic traits.
- Genomic tools – Support rapid screening of collected material.
3️⃣ Plant Tissue Culture in Disease Elimination
- Micropropagation: Producing genetically identical, disease-free plants (e.g., banana, potato).
- Meristem culture: Grows plants from the shoot tip (virus-free plants).
- Somatic embryogenesis: Develops plant embryos from somatic cells — useful for large-scale propagation.
- Protoplast culture: Regenerates plants from single cells (useful for creating hybrids).
4️⃣ In Vitro Conservation and Exchange
In vitro conservation:
- Slow-growth storage – Reduce temperature or add osmotic agents to slow plant growth.
- Medium-term storage – Tissue cultures maintained under controlled lab conditions.
- Long-term cryopreservation – Freezing plant material for decades.
In vitro exchange:
- Exchange of tissue cultures between countries.
- Ensures pathogen-free, genetically stable plant material for international trade and research.
5️⃣ Cryopreservation
Definition: Long-term storage of cells, tissues, embryos, or seeds in liquid nitrogen (-196°C).
Steps:
- Pre-treatment: Cryoprotectants (e.g., DMSO, glycerol) prevent ice crystal damage.
- Freezing: Rapid or slow freezing methods.
- Storage: Immersion in liquid nitrogen for indefinite preservation.
- Thawing: Rapid rewarming to avoid cell damage.
- Regeneration: Plants regenerated from frozen material.
Uses:
- Preserves recalcitrant seeds, pollen, embryos, meristem tips.
- Safeguards endangered species.
- Stores transgenic material securely.
6️⃣ Transgenics - Exchange and Biosafety Issues
- Transgenics: Plants with genes introduced from other species for desirable traits (e.g., insect resistance, drought tolerance).
- Exchange challenges:
- Biosafety protocols – Prevent unintended environmental release.
- Phytosanitary measures – Ensure no pests/pathogens are transferred.
- IPR and regulatory approvals – Ensure compliance with international guidelines (e.g., Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety).
7️⃣ Biochemical and Molecular Approaches to Assessing Plant Diversity
Biochemical markers:
- Isozymes, secondary metabolites – Indicate genetic variation.
- Useful for distinguishing closely related species and varieties.
Molecular markers:
- RAPD (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA)
- AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism)
- SSR (Simple Sequence Repeats)
- SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism)
- ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeats)
Applications:
- Genetic fingerprinting of cultivars.
- Detection of duplicates in germplasm collections.
- Studying gene flow, phylogeny, and hybridization events.
8️⃣ DNA Fingerprinting
- Purpose: Create a unique genetic "barcode" for plant accessions.
- Uses:
- Identify duplicates in collections.
- Trace breeding lineages.
- Protect breeders' rights through unique genetic IDs.
9️⃣ NGS Tools (Next Generation Sequencing)
NGS Technologies:
- Whole genome sequencing (WGS) – Decodes entire genomes rapidly.
- RNA sequencing (transcriptomics) – Studies gene expression patterns.
- Genotyping by sequencing (GBS) – Identifies SNP markers across the genome.
- Chloroplast and mitochondrial genome sequencing – Tracks maternal inheritance.
Applications:
- High-resolution genetic mapping.
- Discovery of new genetic diversity.
- Improved breeding strategies using genomic data.
🔟 GWAS (Genome-Wide Association Studies)
Purpose: Identifies genetic variations associated with specific traits (e.g., disease resistance, yield).
Process:
- Collect diverse plant populations.
- Genotype plants using SNP markers.
- Correlate genotypes with observed phenotypes.
- Identify genes linked to key agronomic traits.
Significance: Speeds up breeding programs by pinpointing beneficial genes.
1️⃣1️⃣ Bioinformatics Tools to Analyze Molecular Data
- FASTA/BLAST: Sequence alignment and gene identification.
- Phylogenetic analysis: Study evolutionary relationships among plant species.
- SNP calling pipelines: Identifies genetic variants from NGS data.
- Genomic databases:
- NCBI GenBank – Stores genetic sequences.
- Ensembl Plants – Annotated plant genomes.
- Planteome – Plant-specific trait and gene ontology database.
🌟 Key Takeaways:
✅ Plant biotechnology plays a vital role in accelerating PGR conservation efforts.
✅ In vitro methods, cryopreservation, and transgenic technologies secure genetic material.
✅ Molecular markers, DNA fingerprinting, NGS, and GWAS provide insights into plant diversity.
✅ Bioinformatics tools manage and analyze complex molecular data efficiently.
🌱 Unit 9: Plant Quarantine
1️⃣ Principles of Plant Quarantine
Definition:
Plant quarantine refers to regulatory measures aimed at preventing the introduction and spread of harmful pests, diseases, and weeds through plants and plant products.Key Principles:
- Exclusion: Prevent entry of pests and diseases from other regions or countries.
- Containment: Stop the spread of any detected pests within a country or region.
- Eradication: Eliminate pests if they manage to enter.
- Inspection and certification: Ensure exported and imported plant materials meet phytosanitary standards.
2️⃣ Objectives of Plant Quarantine
- Prevent the introduction of exotic pests, diseases, and invasive weeds.
- Ensure the safety of imported plant germplasm for breeding, research, and cultivation.
- Protect domestic agriculture and biodiversity from harmful foreign organisms.
- Facilitate safe international trade in compliance with international phytosanitary agreements.
3️⃣ Relevance of Plant Quarantine
- Safeguards agricultural productivity by preventing pest outbreaks.
- Supports food security by protecting essential crops from destructive pests and pathogens.
- Preserves biodiversity by stopping invasive species that could disrupt local ecosystems.
- Ensures economic stability by reducing losses from pest infestations and avoiding trade restrictions.
4️⃣ Regulations and Plant Quarantine Setup in India
The Destructive Insects and Pests Act (DIP Act), 1914: The primary law governing plant quarantine in India.
Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003: Provides detailed rules on importing plants and plant products.
Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine, and Storage (DPPQS): The central agency overseeing plant quarantine in India.
Quarantine stations:
- Airports (e.g., Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai)
- Seaports (e.g., Kolkata, Cochin)
- Land borders (e.g., Wagah, Nepal borders)
- Research centers for post-entry quarantine (PEQ).
International alignment:
- India follows the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) guidelines.
- Complies with the World Trade Organization's (WTO) Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement.
5️⃣ Economic Significance of Seed-Borne Pests, Pathogens, and Weeds
- Seed-borne pests: e.g., Anguina, nematodes, seed beetles — cause crop failure, yield losses.
- Seed-borne pathogens: e.g., Loose smut (wheat), bacterial blight (rice) — spread diseases rapidly through infected seeds.
- Weeds: e.g., Parthenium (Congress grass), Striga (witchweed) — compete with crops, reduce yield, and degrade ecosystems.
👉 Economic consequences:
- Loss of crop yield and quality.
- Increased cost of pest/disease control.
- Trade bans and loss of export markets.
- Costly eradication programs (e.g., Eradication of Karnal bunt in wheat).
6️⃣ Detection and Post-Entry Quarantine (PEQ) Operations
Detection methods:
- Visual inspection — checks for symptoms of pests and diseases.
- Seed health testing — detects hidden pathogens (e.g., blotter method, agar plate method).
- Molecular diagnostics — PCR, ELISA for precise pathogen identification.
- X-ray screening — detects hidden insects inside seeds.
Post-Entry Quarantine (PEQ):
- Applies to imported plant material after arrival in India.
- Plants are grown in isolation under strict observation.
- Duration: Varies by crop and risk level (e.g., fruit trees may require longer quarantine).
- Released only if free from pests/pathogens.
7️⃣ Salvaging of Infested/Infected Germplasm
- Salvaging: Efforts to recover valuable plant germplasm from pest/pathogen infections.
- Methods:
- Hot water treatment (e.g., treating sugarcane setts).
- Thermotherapy (e.g., exposing plant tissue to controlled heat to kill pathogens).
- Meristem culture — grow healthy plants from pathogen-free shoot tips.
- Chemical treatment — seed dressing with fungicides/insecticides.
8️⃣ Domestic Quarantine
- Purpose: Prevents the movement of pests/diseases within different regions of the same country.
- Examples:
- Ban on movement of banana planting material from Tamil Nadu (to prevent spread of banana bunchy top virus).
- Mango quarantine zones to stop the spread of mango fruit flies.
- Karnal bunt-free wheat zones in Punjab and Haryana.
🌱 Unit 10: Germplasm Characterization, Evaluation, Maintenance, and Regeneration
1️⃣ Principles and Strategies of PGR Evaluation
PGR (Plant Genetic Resource) evaluation: A systematic process to assess germplasm for traits of agronomic, biotic, abiotic, and nutritional importance.
Key Principles:
- Representativeness: Ensure diverse genetic backgrounds are included.
- Reproducibility: Evaluation must yield consistent results across locations and seasons.
- Efficiency: Use appropriate statistical designs to ensure reliable comparisons.
Strategies:
- Preliminary evaluation: Basic morphological traits recorded during collection.
- Detailed evaluation: Under multi-location trials for agronomic, quality, and stress tolerance traits.
- Special trait evaluation: Focused on specific needs like disease resistance, drought tolerance, or nutritional value.
2️⃣ Approaches in Germplasm Characterization and Diversity Analysis
Characterization: Describes distinct, inheritable traits (e.g., plant height, leaf shape, flower color).
- Morphological descriptors — based on visible traits.
- Biochemical markers — protein and enzyme profiles.
- Molecular markers — DNA-based techniques (e.g., SSR, SNP, AFLP).
Diversity analysis: Assesses genetic variation within and between populations.
- Phenotypic diversity analysis — based on observed traits.
- Genotypic analysis — molecular markers to quantify genetic relationships.
- Geographical analysis — studies eco-geographical distribution patterns.
3️⃣ Concept of Core Collection
Core collection: A representative subset (~10% of total collection) that captures most of the genetic diversity of the entire germplasm collection.
Purpose:
- Enhance evaluation efficiency.
- Reduce redundancy.
- Facilitate easy handling and maintenance.
Example: Core collections of wheat, rice, and maize have been developed globally.
4️⃣ Descriptors and Descriptor States for Data Scoring
Descriptors: Standardized characteristics used to record germplasm traits.
- Qualitative descriptors — e.g., leaf shape, flower color (non-measurable).
- Quantitative descriptors — e.g., plant height, yield (measurable).
Descriptor states: Coded forms of trait expressions.
- Example:
- Flower color: 1 = White, 2 = Red, 3 = Yellow
- Seed size: 1 = Small, 2 = Medium, 3 = Large
- Example:
👉 International organizations like Bioversity International provide descriptor lists for key crops.
5️⃣ Maintenance of Germplasm Collections
Working collections: For immediate use in breeding and research.
Active collections: Maintained for medium-term storage, regularly regenerated.
Base collections: Long-term conservation, stored under strict conditions (e.g., -18°C).
Specific strategies by crop type:
- Self-pollinated crops: Maintain individual accessions, prevent cross-pollination.
- Cross-pollinated crops: Maintain population diversity, avoid inbreeding.
- Vegetatively propagated crops: Use field gene banks, tissue culture for backup.
- Perennials/wild relatives: In situ conservation or clonal repositories.
6️⃣ Principles and Practices of Regeneration
Regeneration: The process of growing germplasm to produce fresh seed/material for storage and distribution.
Key factors:
- Mode of reproduction: Self/cross-pollination, vegetative propagation.
- Isolation distance: Prevents contamination from foreign pollen.
- Population size: Maintains genetic diversity and prevents genetic drift.
- Environmental considerations: Optimal growing conditions for healthy seed production.
Genetic integrity concepts:
- Genetic shift: Change in allele frequency due to selection pressures.
- Genetic drift: Random changes in allele frequency in small populations.
- Optimum environment: Ensure environmental factors don’t bias the genetic makeup during regeneration.
7️⃣ Post-Harvest Handling of Germplasm
- Drying: Seeds dried to low moisture levels (~5-7%) for storage.
- Cleaning: Removes chaff, foreign materials, damaged seeds.
- Viability testing: Germination tests before storage.
- Packing: Air-tight containers, vacuum-sealed for long-term preservation.
- Labeling and documentation: Clear records for traceability.
8️⃣ PGR Database Management
Data collected:
- Accession details (origin, collection site).
- Morphological, agronomic, molecular characterization data.
- Evaluation results (stress tolerance, yield, quality traits).
Database examples:
- NISM (National Information System on PGR in India)
- Genesys (Global portal for plant genetic resources)
- GRIN (Germplasm Resources Information Network)
9️⃣ Statistical Designs and Analysis of Evaluation
Experimental designs:
- RCBD (Randomized Complete Block Design) — for field trials.
- LSD (Latin Square Design) — manages two confounding factors.
- Split plot design — evaluates multiple traits or stress combinations.
Analysis techniques:
- ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) — identifies significant differences.
- PCA (Principal Component Analysis) — reduces data dimensionality, identifies major contributing traits.
- Cluster analysis — groups accessions based on similarity.
🔬 Advanced Techniques in Germplasm Evaluation
- High-throughput phenotyping: Automated systems (e.g., drones, imaging platforms) for rapid evaluation of plant traits.
- Reference collections: Subset of highly characterized, genetically diverse accessions for benchmarking.
- Genetic enhancement:
- Pre-breeding: Introgression of valuable traits from wild relatives into cultivated varieties.
- Marker-assisted selection (MAS) — accelerates breeding for desired traits.
- Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) — identifies genes linked to key agronomic traits.
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